Operating the country's system of environmental ( weather ) satellites is one of the major responsibilities of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS). NESDIS operates the satellites and manages the processing and distribution of the millions of bits of data and images theses satellites produce daily. The primary customer is NOAA's National Weather Service, which uses satellite data to create forecasts for the public, television, radio, and weather advisory services. Satellite information is also shared with various Federal agencies, such as the Departments of Agriculture, Interior, Defense, and Transportation; with other countries, such as Japan, India, and Russia, and members of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the United Kingdom Meteorological Office; and with the private sector.
NOAA's operational weather satellite system is composed of two types of satellites: geostationary operational environmental satellites (GOES) for short-range warning and "now-casting" and polar-orbiting satellites for longer-term forecasting. Both kinds of satellite are necessary for providing a complete global weather monitoring system.
A new series of GOES and polar-orbiting satellites has been developed for NOAA by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The new GOES-I through M series provide higher spatial and temporal resolution images and full-time operational soundings. The polar-orbiting meteorological satellites (beginning with NOAA-K in 1998) will provide improved atmospheric temperature and moisture data in all weather situations. This new technology will help provide the National Weather Service the most advanced weather forecast system in the world.
Note that two important distinctions can be made
between types of orbits though several types actually exist, geostationary
orbits and polar orbits. In geostationary orbits, the satellite hovers
over a fixed geographical location. To achieve a balance between the centripetal
and gravitational forces, the orbit is quite large and the satellite is
distant from Earth. Polar orbits are closer to Earth and move with respect
to the Earth's surface, crossing the poles several times each day and observing
different longitudes on each pass (as shown in the figure below). Polar
orbiters give better spatial coverage than to geostationary (global versus
nearly hemispheric) but give worse temporal coverage (once to twice a day,
in the tropics, versus continuous).
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES)
GOES
satellites provide the kind of continuous monitoring necessary for intensive
data analysis. They circle the Earth in a geosynchronous orbit, which means
they orbit the equatorial plane of the Earth at a speed matching the Earth's
rotation. This allows them to hover continuously over one position on the
surface. The geosynchronous plane is about 35,800 km (22,300 miles) above
the Earth, high enough to allow the satellites a full-disc view of the
Earth. Because they stay above a fixed spot on the surface, they provide
a constant vigil for the atmospheric "triggers" for severe weather conditions
such as tornadoes, flash floods, hail storms, and hurricanes. When these
conditions develop the GOES satellites are able to monitor storm development
and track their movements.
GOES satellite imagery is also used to estimate rainfall during the thunderstorms and hurricanes for flash flood warnings, as well as estimates snowfall accumulations and overall extent of snow cover. Such data help meteorologists issue winter storm warnings and spring snow melt advisories. Satellite sensors also detect ice fields and map the movements of sea and lake ice.
NASA launched the first GOES for NOAA in 1975 and followed it with another in 1977. Currently, the United States is operating GOES-8 and GOES-10, launched in 1997. GOES-9 (which malfunctioned in 1998) is being stored in orbit to replace either GOES-8 or GOES-10, should either fail.
GOES-8 and GOES-10
The
United States normally operates two meteorological satellites in geostationary
orbit over the equator. Each satellite views almost a third of the Earth's surface:
one monitors North and South America and most of the Atlantic Ocean, the other
North America and the Pacific Ocean basin. GOES-8 (or GOES-East) is positioned
at 75 W longitude and the equator, while GOES-10 (or GOES-West) is positioned
at 135 W longitude and the equator. The two operate together to produce a full-face
picture of the Earth, day and night. Coverage extends approximately from 20
W longitude to 165 E longitude. This figure shows the coverage provided by each
satellite.
The main mission is carried out by the primary instruments, the Imager and the Sounder. The imager is a multichannel instrument that senses radiant energy and reflected solar energy from the Earth's surface and atmosphere. The Sounder provides data to determine the vertical temperature and moisture profile of the atmosphere, surface and cloud top temperatures, and ozone distribution.
Other instruments on board the spacecraft are a Search and Rescue transponder, a data collection and relay system for ground-based data platforms, and a space environment monitor. The latter consists of a magnetometer, an X-ray sensor, a high energy proton and alpha detector, and an energetic particles sensor. All are used for monitoring the near-Earth space environment or solar "weather."
GOES-10 Characteristics | |
Main body: | 2.0m (6.6 ft) by 2.1m (6.9 ft) by 2.3m (7.5 ft) |
Solar array: | 4.8m (15.8 ft) by 2.7m (8.9 feet) |
Weight at liftoff: | 2105 kg (4641 pounds) |
Launch vehicle: | Atlas I |
Launch date: | April 25, 1997 Cape Canaveral Air Station, FL |
Orbital information: | Type: Geosynchronous
Altitude: 35, 786 km (22, 236 statute miles) Period: 1,436 minutes Inclination: 0.41 degrees |
Sensors: | Imager
Sounder Space Environment Monitor (SEM) Data Collection System (DCS) Search and Rescue (SAR) Transponder |
For users who establish their own direct readout receiving station, the GOES satellites transmit low resolution imagery in the WEFAX service. WEFAX can be received with an inexpensive receiver. Highest resolution Imager and Sounder data is found in the GVAR primary data user service which requires more complex receiving equipment. More information about establishing receiving stations can be obtained from the Email contact at the bottom of the page.
Polar-Orbiting Satellites
Complementing
the geostationary satellites are two polar-orbiting satellites known as
Advanced Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS-N or ATN), constantly
circling the Earth in an almost north-south orbit, passing close to both
poles. The orbits are circular, with an altitude between 830 (morning orbit)
and 870 (afternoon orbit) km, and are sun synchronous. One satellite crosses
the equator at 7:30 a.m. local time, the other at 1:40 p.m. local time.
The circular orbit permits uniform data acquisition by the satellite and
efficient control of the satellite by the NOAA Command and Data Acquisition
(CDA) stations located near Fairbanks, Alaska and Wallops Island, Virginia.
Operating as pair, these satellites ensure that data for any region of
the Earth are no more than six hours old.
A suite of instruments is able to measure many parameters of the Earth's atmosphere, its surface, cloud cover, incoming solar protons, positive ions, electron-flux density, and the energy spectrum at the satellite altitude. As a part of the mission, the satellites can receive, process and retransmit data from Search and Rescue beacon transmitters, and automatic data collection platforms on land, ocean buoys, or aboard free-floating balloons. The primary instrument aboard the satellite is the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer or AVHRR.
Data from all the satellite sensors is transmitted to the ground via a broadcast called the High Resolution Picture Transmission (HRPT). A second data transmission consists of only image data from two of the AVHRR channels, called Automatic Picture Transmission (APT). For users who want to establish their own direct readout receiving station, low resolution imagery data in the APT service can be received with inexpensive equipment, while the highest resolution data transmitted in the HRPT service utilizes a more complex receiver. Additional information about establishing receiving station can be obtained from the Email contact below.
NOAA-15 Characteristics | |
Main body: | 4.2m (13.75 ft) long, 1.88m (6.2 ft) diameter |
Solar array: | 2.73m (8.96 ft) by 6.14m (20.16 ft) |
Weight at liftoff: | 2231.7 kg (4920 pounds) including 756.7 kg of expendable fuel |
Launch vehicle: | Lockheed Martin Titan II |
Launch date: | May 13, 1998 Vandenburg Air Force Base, CA |
Orbital information: | Type: sun synchronous
Altitude: 833 km Period: 101.2 minutes Inclination: 98.70 degrees |
Sensors: | Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
(AVHRR/3)
Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-A (AMSU-A) Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-B (AMSU-B) High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (HIRS/3) Space Environment Monitor (SEM/2) Search and Rescue (SAR) Repeater and Processor Data Collection System (DCS/2) |
Currently, NOAA is operating two polar orbiters: NOAA-14 launched in December 1994 and a new series of polar orbiters, with improved sensors, which began with the launch of NOAA-15 in May 1998. NOAA-12 continues transmitting HRPT data as a stand-by satellite.
How Satellites Are Named
NOAA
assigns a letter to the satellite before it is launched, and a number once
it has achieved orbit. For example, GOES-H, once in orbit, was designated
GOES-7, GOES-G, which was lost at launch, was never assigned a number.
The same system is used for polar orbiters; for example, NOAA-11, still
in orbit, was designated NOAA-H before launch. NOAA-J became NOAA-14.
Additional Links to Information
For
more information on the NOAA polar-orbiting satellites, see the NOAA-KLM
User's Guide, and the NOAA - J Advanced TIROS-N (ATN) Pamphlet.
Link to the USGS
site for more information about the AVHRR instrument. For more detailed
information about the GOES satellites, see the GOES
I-M DataBook, Revision 1, published 4 January 1997 by Space Systems-Loral.
Also the GOES Pamphlet
published when GOES-8 was launched. Other sites to visit: NASAs GOES
Project Office and POES Project
Office.